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ISO: Introduction, History and ISO 9000

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What is ISO? ISO, short for the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent and non-governmental international organization that consists of 167 national standards bodies. Its purpose is to develop and publish standards that promote global consistency and quality in various industries and sectors.  Its primary role is to develop and publish a wide range of proprietary, industrial, and commercial standards. Currently, ISO has over 24,000 active technical standards that encompass diverse areas, including manufactured products, technology, food safety, agriculture, and healthcare. History of ISO The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was founded in 1947 and is currently based in Geneva, Switzerland. Its roots can be traced back to 1920 when it originated as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations (ISA).  However, its operations were suspended during World War 2. After the war, United Nations Standards Coordinating
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Features of Humerus Bone

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The humerus is a long bone located in the upper limb, spanning from the shoulder to the elbow joint. The greater tubercle is a bony prominence located on the lateral side of the humerus, below the anatomical neck. The lesser tubercle is a smaller bony projection located on the anterior side of the humerus, near the anatomical neck. The greater tubercle is a prominent bony projection located on the lateral side of the proximal humerus. It provides attachment points for various muscles and tendons of the shoulder. The narrow intertubercular groove, also known as the sulcus, passes between the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus. This groove provides a pathway for certain structures, such as tendons and blood vessels, to pass through and interact with the surrounding shoulder anatomy. The roughened, U-shaped area located at the middle portion of the humeral shaft is known as the deltoid tuberosity. This prominence serves as an attachment site for the deltoid muscle, a major m
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Tree Data Structure and its Applications

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What is Tree Data Structure? A tree is a non-linear data structure as it stores data in a hierarchical manner that consists of nodes connected through edges. It is the best alternative for the linear data structure like arrays, stacks, queues, etc as these linear data structures have high time and space complexity. The data stored in nodes of the tree are easier to access thus reducing the time complexity. Terms related to tree data structure 1. Node A node is an entity that stores a data element and links to its child and parent nodes. 2. Edge  The link between any two nodes is called the edge. 3. Root The root is the transparent node in a tree that is a root node doesn't have any parent node. Here no. 1 is the Root node. 4. Parent and Child Node The node which contains sub-nodes is called the parent node. Here 1 is the parent node for 2 and 3 and 2 is the parent node for 4 and 5. The node which is a descendant of any node is called a child node. Here 2 and 3 are child nod
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Binary Tree Data Structure and Its Types

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What is Binary Tree Data Structure? A binary tree is a type of tree in which each parent node have at most two child nodes. Each node of a binary tree has three items. 1. Data item 2. Address if a left child 3. Address of the right child Types of Binary tree 1. Full Binary tree A full binary tree is a type of binary tree in which each parent node have either two or no child nodes. Here 1 has 2 and 3 child nodes. 3 don't have any child nodes. 2. Perfect Binary Tree A perfect Binary tree is a type of binary tree in which each parent node have exactly two child nodes and all leaf nodes are present at some level. Here 1 has 2 and 3 child nodes and 4,5,6,7 leaf nodes are present at some level. 3. Complete Binary tree In a complete binary tree, all the levels are filled. All leaf elements must lean towards the left in a tree structure. The last leaf element might not have the right sibling. 4. Balanced Binary Tree A balanced binary tree is a type of binary tree in which the
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Relation between Module, Package, Library, Framework in Python

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1. Module A module in Python is a collection of functions and global variables having a .py extension. Eg: Date time, Regex, Random, etc. 2. Package A package in Python is a collection of various modules. The package also contains sub-packages inside it. Eg: NumPy, Pandas, etc. 3. Library A library in Python is a collection of various packages which help to perform tasks without writing the code. It can be re-used and can be used just by importing it into the program. Eg: Matplotlib, Seaburn, etc. 4. Framework A Python framework is a comprehensive collection of modules and packages designed to accelerate the development process. Unlike libraries, frameworks are more intricate and provide a structured foundation and architectural guidelines for building applications.
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Hemoglobin and its Types

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What is Hemoglobin? Hemoglobin is an iron-containing globular protein present in red blood cells (RBCs). They impart a red color to the blood and help in transporting oxygen from the lungs to different parts of the body. A healthy individual has about 12-20 g of hemoglobin in every 100 ml of blood. Hemoglobin is a tetrameric protein that contains the heme prosthetic group attached to each subunit. Lackness of Hemoglobin in the blood can cause anemia. Hemoglobin is made up of four amino acid chains and each of these chains contains heme. This is the compound that contains iron. The heme molecule forms strong covalent bonds with a globular protein, primarily through the nitrogen atoms of the imidazole ring located beneath the porphyrin ring. Types of Hemoglobin After Birth Hemoglobin A It accounts for 95-98% of Hemoglobin in adults. It consists of two alpha and two beta polypeptide chains, which together form the complete structure. Hemoglobin A2 It accounts for 2-3% of Hemoglobin pr
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Examples of Computer Security Incidents

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1. AIIMS Cyberattack A recent cyberattack on the servers of AIIMS, Delhi compromised the records of around 3-4 crore patients like their Names, medical, history, lab reports, contact information, etc. The servers of AIIMS, Delhi were infected with ransomware like wanna cry, mimilatz (check), and trojan and demanded 300 crore money to retrieve the access of servers. Hackers used two proton mail address to send the ransomware and these email address belongs to China and Hong Kong. The cyberattack targeted e-hospital applications, stopping the functioning of OPD, emergency, and other patient services. 2 Iran nuclear Program attack The Stuxnet worm developed jointly by the U.S. and Israel is used to target Iran's nuclear program in 2010. This malware is injected into the system of the nuclear facility through U.S.B devices and it targets the machine used for the enrichment of nuclear material. Due to this attack, till now Iran is not able to develop its nuclear weapon. 3. Uber data
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Features of Femur Bone

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The femur is the longest bone in the skeleton. The small depression on the femoral head is called the fovea capitis. The head of the femur is spherical in shape and forms a ball-and-socket synovial joint with the acetabulum of the pelvis. The neck of the femur serves as the connection between the femoral head and the femoral shaft (body). The larger bony prominence located laterally is known as the greater trochanter. The smaller bony prominence located medially and more posteriorly is known as the lesser trochanter.
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Features of Ulna and Radius Bone

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 1. Ulna The ulna is situated on the inner (medial) side of the forearm and is longer in length compared to the radius. At the proximal end of the ulna, there is a distinctive c-shaped indentation called the trochlear notch. The coronoid process, a prominent bony projection, forms the lower boundary of the trochlear notch at the proximal end of the ulna. On the anterior side of the ulna, just below the coronoid process, there is a roughened area known as the ulnar tuberosity. To the lateral side and slightly inferior to the trochlear notch, there is a small and smooth area known as the radial notch. At the proximal end of the ulna, there is the olecranon, which forms the prominence of the elbow. 2. Radius  The radius is the smaller of the two bones in the forearm and runs parallel to the ulna on the lateral side of the forearm. The proximal end of the radius features a disc-shaped structure known as the head. The neck of the radius is the region immediately below the expanded head
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Blood and its Composition

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What is Blood? Blood is a body fluid that is dark brown to red. It contains four components that are plasma, red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets. Blood is essential for life as it delivers essential substances like oxygen and nutrients to various body cells. It also helps to fight infection and also regulate the pH of the body. An average human adult contains approx 5 liters of blood which contributes to 8% of the total body weight. The blood in the body contains 55% plasma and 45% blood cells. Composition of Blood  1. Plasma The liquid component of blood is called plasma. It is yellowish and made up of mainly water, but it also contains proteins, sugars, hormones, and salts. Plasma helps in the transportation of blood cells throughout the body with water and nutrients. 2. Red Blood Cells (RBCs) Red blood cells (RBCs) account for approximately 40-45% of blood volume and appear bright red due to their hemoglobin content. Hemoglobin enables RBCs to tran
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Fingerprint Bureau and its main Functions

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The Fingerprint Bureau of India, also known as Central Fingerprint Bureau (CFPB) was set up in Kolkata in 1955 under the administrative control of the Intelligence Bureau (IB).  But, In 1973, the administrative control was transferred to CBI and again in 1986, the administrative control was finally given to the newly formed National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) located in R.K Puram, New Delhi. Functions of Fingerprint Bureau of India 1. The main function of FPB is to maintain the fingerprint data of Indian and Foreign criminals. The record of foreign criminals is sent by the Interpol Division of CBI. 2. It also examines the questioned fingerprint impressions referred by central Govt. departments and other Govt. of India undertakings. 3. It also imparts training in fingerprint science to police and non-police personnel of the state govt. and personnel of foreign countries under the 'Technical Co-operation Scheme'. 4. It also conducts the All India Board examination every ye
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DNA Quantitation: Definition and Methods Involved

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What is DNA Quantitation? DNA quantitation is a process in which the quantity of DNA extracted is estimated. It is important to know the quantity of DNA because it helps in DNA purifying and performing PCR. Aiding too little DNA will result in a profile that is difficult to analyze. Methods of DNA Purification 1. Spectrophotometry Spectrophotometry techniques like UV absorbance can be used in DNA quantitation. DNA absorbs light maximally at 260 nm . This helps in estimating the amount of DNA by measuring the absorbance of light at wavelengths ranging from 220 nm to 300 nm. In this method, the DNA sample is placed in a quartz cuvette and the absorbance is measured against the standard sample. Moreover, fluorescent dyes (Ethidium Bromide) can also be used for DNA quantization using spectrometry. These dyes interact with double-standard DNA and produce fluorescence which is detected by spectrophotometer. 2. Agorose Gel electrophoresis This method is used for the separation of DNA fragme
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DNA Purification: Definition and Methods Involved

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Whats is DNA Purification? DNA purification is followed just after the DNA extraction as the DNA cell concentrate will also contain protein and RNA. The purification is done to remove these contaminants. The highly purified DNA sample increases the efficiency of the experiment and the chances of a false positive result are also reduced. Further, the purified DNA can be amplified using the PCR technique. Methods for DNA Purification 1. Treatment with Alcohol Alcohols like Methanol, Ethanol, and isopropanol can be used in DNA purification as well as DNA precipitation. Once the DNA is precipitated, it is washed with 1 ml of alcohol and then the mixture is vortexed gently until the clear DNA pellet is observed. After this, the sample undergoes high-speed centrifugation. The centrifugal force resulted in the separation of debris and other contaminants from the DNA at this location. 2. Gel filtration This is a type of chromatography technique that uses molecular sieving properties of porous
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DNA Extraction: Steps and Methods Involved

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What is DNA Extraction? DNA Extraction is a process of taking out DNA from a cell by breaking the cell membrane and Nuclear membrane with the help of chemical, enzyme, and physical disruptions. The first DNA isolation was done in 1869 by Friedrich Miescher.   Common sources of DNA isolation are whole blood, hair, semen, saliva, buccal (cheek) swabs, urine, and other important biological fluids. DNA isolation helps a forensic expert to link a suspect from a crime scene. Steps involved in DNA isolation 1. Cell and tissue disruption Cell and tissue disruption is done using an enzyme known as Proteinase K. Tissues can also be disrupted using boiling and alkali agents. Bones and teeth are frozen in liquid nitrogen and then ground to a fine powder. 2. Lysis of membranes and other organelles Detergents like Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and Sarkosyl are used for the lysis of membranes in which DNA is released from nuclei and mitochondria. A buffer like Tris-HCl is used to maintain the pH fo
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Biological Warfare and it's Types

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What is Biological Warfare? Biological warfare is the use of various biological agents like bacteria, viruses, insects, and fungi to kill or harm some humans. A biological attack can result in a large number of causalities and can disrupt the economy and infrastructure of the enemy country. A famous example of biological warfare is the use of bioagents in world war 1 that causes anthrax and glanders infection. To reduce the proliferation of biological warfare agents, the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) was signed in 1972. This international treaty prohibits the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling, and use of biological weapons. Its aim is to ensure the peaceful use of biological sciences and prevent the misuse of biological agents for harmful purposes. Categories of Biological agent The CDC of the united states divided various biological agents that are used in biological warfare into the following categories: 1. Category A These weapons can have devastati
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DNA Fingerprinting: Definition, Method and Application

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What is DNA fingerprinting? DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory technique that is used to determine the identity of a person using a unique pattern in the minisatellites of the genome of an individual. It was first invented in 1984 by Sir Akec Jeffreys after he realized that we can detect variations in human DNA based on these minisatellites. On average, about 99.9% of DNA between two individuals is the same, the remaining 0.1 % makes the person unique. DNA profiling, DNA testing, DNA examination, Genetic profiling, and Genetic fingerprinting are branches of DNA fingerprinting. Following is the complete process of DNA fingerprinting: RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) The first step of DNA fingerprinting is to extract DNA from the biological fluid of human-like blood, buccal swabs, etc. Then molecular scissors, also called restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA into thousand pieces of different lengths. These pieces of DNA are now separated using gel electrophoresis
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History of Fingerprint Science

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Prof. Jan Evangelista Purkinje The history of fingerprint science dates back three 3000 years as it was first used in Chinato to sign legal documents. Then, In 1823 Prof. Jan Evangelista Purkinje published a thesis describing the friction ridge patterns and classifying fingerprints into Nine categories. Sir William Herschel In 1858, An English civil servant Sir William Herschel posted in Bengal, India, started the practice of recording handprints of native Indians to sign the contract. This, greatly prevented the cheating and impersonation among native Indians to sign the contract. But, William Herschel did not publish any of his findings. Dr. Henry Fauld In 1874, Dr. Henry Fauld , a Scottish physician working in a hospital in Tokyo, Japan, published his theory on the potential use of fingerprints for personal identification. In 1880, Dr. Fauld suggested that skin ridge patterns can be proved important for the identification of criminals. He also published his findings in Book &#
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